The birth of Israel

Three converging testimonies - Canaanite, Israeli and Egyptian - help answer the question how ancient is Israel.

By ALEXANDER ZVIELLI
map (photo credit: indonesia.faithfreedom.org)
map
(photo credit: indonesia.faithfreedom.org)
How ancient is Israel? By combining our knowledge of Canaan and Egypt with biblical stories, we might yet find a suitable answer.
The early Hebrews were known as “Ivrim” or “Ovrim,” and were nomads. They must have been wandering in ancient Canaan, dependent on the availability of water and good pasture. They carried all their possessions with them, leaving no traces, and yet had to bury their dead. Such graves became their landmarks, like Machpela in Hebron. The Bible tells us the cave was purchased from Ephron of Zohar for 400 silver shekels – a substantial price when a slave could be bought for 10.
A question must be asked: How could such an independent tribe of nomads survive in the largely wellpopulated Canaan of the 14th century BCE? The entire country was under Egyptian occupation, tightly divided into numerous feudal city states such as Jerusalem, Gezer, Beersheba and others, each ruled by a prince. The princes depended on the Egyptian pharaoh, but frequently robbed, fought and conspired against each other. An isolated tribe of strangers would find it difficult to wander freely within such city-states. It had to seek permission to stay, or use bribes and force. The Bible tells us: “There was strife between the herdsmen of Abram, the herdsmen of Lot and the Canaanites and Perizzites that dwelled in the land…” We are also told that “Abraham took sheep and oxen and gave them to Abimelech to secure his well.” Such a wandering tribe must also have been well-armed, and could ally itself with one prince or another.
We are therefore fortunate that some 400 clay tablets found in 1887 at Tel el Amarna (site of Akh-en-Aton’s capital, which moved from Thebes for religious reasons) might help us understand the political and military situation in Canaan in the early 14th century BCE.
The tablets, part of the royal archives, include correspondence conducted during the last years of Pharaoh Amen-hotep III, his son Akh–en-Aton, and his successor Snemkhere. Many letters, written by feudal Caananite princes, requested assistance in fighting the wandering Apiru tribe.
There is also frequent mention of a powerful Apiru chieftain named Eli-Melech, though such nomadic chiefs were seldom noted by name. The Apiru (or Habiru in Akkadian), who had no permamant abode, were regarded as pariahs by the well-established Canaanites. However, we note on one tablet that the Apiru tribe was sufficiently dangerous to unite such former foes as Abu-Hebda, prince of Jerusalem, Shuwadata, the prince of Hebron and others.
Such tablets, edited by James Pritchard in Ancient Near Eastern Texts, Princeton, 1950, include tablet 240, in which Abu Hebda, prince of Jerusalem, writes to the pharaoh: “the land of the king went over to the Apiru people.” In tablet 254, Labayu (lion-like in Caananite), prince of Shechem, informs the king that he did not know his son associates with the Apiru, and that he had delivered him into the hand of Addaya (apparently as a punishment). In tablet 280, Shuwardata, prince of Hebron, writes: “To the king, my sun god... let the king, my lord learn that the chief of Apiru has risen in arms against the lands which the god of the king, my lord gave me, but I have smitten him… also let the king my lord know that it is I and Abu Hebda, prince of Jerusalem, who fight against the chief of the Apiru. Zurata, prince of Acco and Inadurta, prince of Achshap, gave him 50 chariots which he had lost.” Therefore Shuwardata requests the king to send Yanhamu, and “let us make war in earnest, and let the lands of the king, my lord be restored.” In Tablet 286, Abu-Hebda of Jerusalem requests Egyptian assistance in his chronic struggle with the Apiru. He bitterly complains that Ilimilku (apparently Eli Melech) “is causing the loss of king’s land,” and pleads for more Egyptian troops.
In tablet 287, Abu Hebda complains his caravan containing tribute and captives for the king was attacked and robbed near Ayalon, presumably by the men of Milikulu of Gezer and the sons of Labayu of Shechem. (His sons were cooperating with Apiru, as mentioned in tablet 254).
In tablet 320, Yapahu, prince of Gezer, writes to the pharaoh: “Let the king, my lord, know that my younger brother is estranged from me, and has entered Mohazu, and has given his two hands to the chief of Apiru… and now the land of Ipanna is hostile to me.”
It seems that the Apiru assured their safety by confederating themselves with city states like Gezer and Shechem. The tablets refer to the Canaanites, the Egyptian officials and the Apiru – no other tribe is mentioned.
And who were the Apiru, a wandering and powerful tribe, albeit denigrated by the Canaanites? It seems likely that a tribe led by a powerful leader, different in character and possibly dress from the local people, tightly bound by its own customs, bearing Hebrew-sounding names and which lived in Canaan could be ancient Hebrews, our early ancestors. There is, however, no proof, and archeologists who studied this subject for over a century still differ. While texts on the Apiru are not directly connected with the Bible (which never refers to them), they possibly throw light on the more obscure developments in Jewish history.
BUT WE should recall how the name “Israel” was born. According to the Bible, it was mentioned for the first time when the patriarch Ya’acov fled from Laban the Syrian and became independent (Genesis 33:28). It emerged after an awful, sleepless night during which Ya’acov fought his inner doubts and demons. For being independent meant being exposed to all the dangers of contemporary Canaanite existence: ambush, murder, robbery or enslavement. Ya’acov desperately needed an ally; this was why he was going to meet his elder brother Esau, even though he had cheated him out of his covenental leadership rights. Ya’acov finally found sufficient courage to meet his brother and his 400 retainers, but this time with a new name for his own tribe – Israel. The Bible tells us that God had instructed him: “For as a prince hast thou power, with God’s help, over men.”
Nonetheless, Ya’acov divided his camp in case he would have to retreat, but Esau received him and his gifts graciously. Although the two tribes continued to survive as separate entities, they were bound to help each other in an emergency. It seems likely that the Israeli tribes presented problems to the Canaanite princes like those presented by the Apiru. Abraham also knew how to fight. He had 318 troops, and conducted his skirmishes in the best ancient tribal military tradition.
EVER SINCE the emergence of the 19th Egyptian Pharaonic Dynasty, Canaan was the whipping boy of Egypt, which exploited its political weakness, playing one city state against another. Successive pharaohs conducted armed invasions in order to bring home slaves, horses and cattle. They fought to gain glory and booty, as described on their “victory” stellas.
Such stellas recall that the Apiru, an individual tribe, was also a victim of such invasions. The Apiru are mentioned by pharaoh Thut-Mose III (about 1490-1436 BCE) who, during the spring of 1468 BCE, broke an organized resistance by the princes of Canaan and captured Megiddo after a six-month siege.
Amen-Hotep II (1447-1421 BCE) lists his booty as 127 Canaanite princes and 179 of their brothers. Next on the list are 3,600 Apiru; 15,200 Shasu (Beduin), 36,000 Kharu (Horites), then people of Northern Syria – a total of 89,000 souls.
The appearance of Apiru as third on this list is unusual. It is obvious that the Egyptians regarded the Apiru as a distinct entity.
Pharaoh Mernepthah (1226-1223) was the first who wrote on his stella: “Israel is laid waste, his seed is not.” He no longer mentions the Apiru, but Israel, and this is an important innovation.
There are many such references to the Apiru in Egyptian sources. Papyrus Leiden 348 from the reign of Ramses II orders the feeding of the Apiru who dragged stones for his buildings.
It is therefore likely that he Apiru were the ancient Hebrew tribes, already well-organized in Canaan before the 14th century BCE, and known for their strong leaders, beliefs and customs. The three converging testimonies – Canaanite, Israeli and Egyptian – seem to present a fascinating portrayal of Israel’s birth.