A tale of two cities, each with a long-standing Jewish presence.
By IRVING SPITZA VIEW of the St Laurence Fort and the Dubrovnik city walls.(photo credit: IRVING SPITZ)
On a cruise with Voyages to Antiquity, the company’s mission focuses on civilizations that developed around the Mediterranean Sea, and to its credit, it does a fantastic job.The company caters to tourists who wish to learn about Egyptian, Minoan, Jewish, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Venetian and Ottoman civilizations. It has only one ship, The Aegean Odyssey, which plies the route of the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Aegean, Adriatic and Black seas. It is a relatively small ship, enabling it to visit harbors that are out of bounds for larger cruise liners.Built in 1972 and recently completely refurbished, The Aegean Odyssey accommodates a maximum of 380 passengers. Depending on the precise routing, there are stops in ports in Italy, Greece, Turkey, Croatia, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon and the Black Sea. In the winter, the ship cruises the east coast of Africa, India and the Far East.While most cruises are notable for their persuasive marketing, with fancy shops, expensive photographic sessions and casinos, this is not the agenda of The Aegean Odyssey – and believe me, no one felt deprived.On the contrary, everything was exemplary. The crew was accommodating and friendly. There were two restaurants on board, one a self-service buffet and the other with more formal dining. Both served excellent gourmet food, and the service was beyond reproach. There was also a health spa, and in the evenings, there were cocktail hours with musical entertainment. As a journalist I was looking for faults, but was unable to find any.The ship has an outstanding reference library stocked with books on archeology, history, art, Croatia. Rome began incursions into the area about 150 years before the Common Era. Dalmatia eventually submitted and became part of the Roman Empire, with Salona as its capital city.The Roman emperor Diocletian was born in Dalmatia and ruled from 284- 305 CE. To stabilize his vast empire economically, politically and militarily, he divided it into four separate administrative regions, each governed by a co-emperor.He was the only Roman emperor to abdicate voluntarily, and he built his retirement palace in present-day Split, which is a few kilometers from Salona.Jews first arrived in Dalmatia with the Roman armies. Unlike many of his successors, Diocletian had a good relationship with Jews. Jewish artifacts have been uncovered in Salona from the Roman period, attesting to a Jewish presence. These items, which include ceramic oil lamps and a fragment of a Jewish sarcophagus, are on display in Split’s archeological museum.In the fifth century, with the collapse of Rome, Dalmatia was ruled transiently by the Goths and then restored to the Byzantine Empire. Slavic and other invaders destroyed Salona in the sixth and seventh centuries. The Jews, together with the local populace, escaped to Split and settled inside the walls of Diocletian’s Palace, which had previously been abandoned. The beginning of the medieval city of Split dates from this time.With the collapse of the Byzantine Empire, Dalmatia fell under the influence of Venice, the dominant power at that time. With the exception of Dubrovnik, Venice controlled most of Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797. During this period, Split and Dubrovnik became prosperous and flourishing ports. Following their expulsion from Spain in 1492, many Jews passed through Dalmatia seeking refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Some were permitted to settle in these thriving cities, which were relatively tolerant of the Jewish influx.In 1797, Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice. Eight years latculture, architecture and philosophy of all the countries on its itineraries. Academic experts in history, art and classics from different universities gave almost daily in-depth lectures on specific aspects of the ports to be visited. One or two were exceptional.On our voyage, we embarked in Venice and stopped along the Dalmatian coast, Sicily and Sorrento, finally disembarking at Civitavecchia, near Rome. In Dalmatia, we visited Split and Dubrovnik. The former entered history as a Roman settlement, and for much of its history was under Venetian domination. Dubrovnik, in contrast, was an independent city-state.Historical background Dalmatia, which sits on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, is today part of er, he annexed Dalmatia, including Split, and in 1808 the city of Dubrovnik itself.Under French rule, Jews received full civic rights for the first time, and all their prior restrictions were annulled.Following Napoleon’s defeat, however, the map of Europe was redrawn at the 1815 Congress of Vienna. Dalmatia became a province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and legal equality of the Jews was again withdrawn. Full Jewish emancipation only occurred later in the 19th century. At the end of World War I, with the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy retained much of Dalmatia, and the remainder became part of Yugoslavia.During World War II, Croatia was a willing Fascist ally and an independent pro-Nazi state under the fiercely anti-Semitic Ustaše regime led by Ante Pavelic, who operated one of the most brutal of the Nazi puppet states. Dubrovnik and Split were initially occupied by the Italians, who did not permit mass deportations.Indeed, many Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe passed through Split and Dubrovnik. In November 1942, at the insistence of the Germans, the Italians interned all Jews and transferred them to the concentration camp on Rab, an island in northern Dalmatia.Fascist Italy capitulated in September 1943. In the brief interval between the Italian surrender and the German occupation, several hundred Jews joined partisan forces or crossed the Adriatic in small boats to Italy. Jewish deportations began in earnest with the arrival of the Germans and the Ustaše. Those Jews who remained in Rab were sent to extermination camps.During the Holocaust, the Ustaše murdered approximately 32,000 Jews (including 20,000 of the 25,000 who made up the Croatian prewar Jewish population). Many met their deaths at the notorious Jasenovac camp, known as the Auschwitz of the Balkans. Here there were no gas chambers; murders were carried out with knives, axes, hammers or blowtorches. The Ustaše also perpetrated a bloodbath against the Serbian population resident in Croatia, and several hundred thousand were murdered.After World War II, Croatia became part of the socialist-communist Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito, and never had to account for its notorious past.When Tito died in 1980, tensions in the different Yugoslavian republics rapidly emerged.In 1990, Franjo Tudjman and his ultra- nationalistic right-wing party won Croatia’s general elections. He reintroduced Ustaše symbols, including their flag and the kuna – the old Ustaše currency – which is still in use today. The police wore uniforms strikingly similar to those the Ustaše used. All this represented a major threat to the Serbian minority in Croatia, and civil war erupted in 1991. The Yugoslav army swept in to separate the warring Serbian and Croatian factions, and after much bloodshed, a cease-fire was arranged in 1992.Under Tudjman, independent Croatia came under condemnation from Israel and part of the international community, for holding memorials in Split and Zagreb in memory of Pavelic, and also for renaming streets after Ustaše war criminals. Today, approximately 2,500 Jews live in Croatia, with the majority in the capital, Zagreb. It is a highly assimilated community.Split Split is Croatia’s largest city after Zagreb, the capital, and has a population of almost 200,000. It was in Split that Diocletian built his palace as well as an associated fortified Roman town. The terrain sloped down to the coast, and the sea came right up to the walls of the palace.As such, Diocletian’s engineers had to level the area and build up a firm foundation to support the overlying palace and other structures. These foundations took the form of arched or vaulted cellars built of large stone blocks with massive supporting pillars – a system reminiscent of the southern part of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, where Herod built supporting arches to keep the Temple platform level.Today, Diocletian’s subterranean cellars house shops, souvenir stands and art exhibits. Several menorahs, incised into the center of some large stone blocks within these cellars, attest to a Jewish presence in Split.The old walled city conforms to the typical Roman plan, with two intersecting thoroughfares. The Cardo is the north-south road, and the Decamanus the one running east-west. They divide the city into four quarters. Diocletian’s palace occupied most of the two eastern quarters.The roads terminate at four gates, which allowed access to the city and intersect at the peristyle – a series of red granite pillars around a courtyard that was the center of the Roman city. These pillars were brought from Egypt.From the peristyle, the visitor can ascend some steps and arrive at the vestibule, which was the entrance to the emperor’s living quarters and has a commanding view of the whole area. It was here that the emperor met with guests.Capping this large vaulted structure is a dome that has partially collapsed. Today, visitors to this structure are usually serenaded by a male choral group singing traditional Croatian songs.The octagonal, Romanesque-style structure just off the peristyle was the emperor’s mausoleum. Diocletian brutally persecuted Christians and had the bishop of Salona murdered. In the fifth century, his mausoleum was converted into Split’s cathedral and dedicated to the martyred bishop. The associated bell tower visible today is a later structure built between the 13th and 16th centuries.Another prominent building of the old Roman city is the temple of Jupiter, which was converted into a baptistery.When Split came under Venetian control, the latter developed and fortified the city. Because of their business acumen, the authorities were tolerant of the Jews, and there were friendly relations between them and the local populace. In the heyday of Split’s Jewish community, Jews operated a bank, and there was a talmudic academy and elementary school.Spanish Jew Daniel Rodriga played a key role in developing Split’s economic potential. His idea was that the city should function as an intermediate station, where commodities coming overland from the east and arriving in Split would then be transported by ship to Venice and the rest of Europe. Similarly, goods from Europe that arrived in Split would be dispatched overland to points in the east.Rodriga also persuaded the authorities to build a lazaretto, or quarantine station for maritime travelers. This was one of the largest in Europe, and travelers arriving from plague-infested areas had to spend 40 days in the lazaretto before being permitted to enter the town.There is a street in Split named after Rodriga.The synagogue in Split dates from the early 16th century and is situated within the old Roman city. The Ark of the Torah, constructed of black and white marble, is actually embedded in the western Roman city wall. The small synagogue is believed to be one of the oldest continually active synagogues in Europe.We were privileged to meet the head of the Jewish community and his daughter, Lea Altarac, a guide who showed us all the points of Jewish interest in Split. The area around the synagogue later became the Jewish Ghetto, which was established at the end of the 18th century with the waning power of Venice.This area is still called the Get. On Marjan Hill, which overlooks the harbor and old city, there is a Jewish cemetery, one of the oldest and largest in Europe. It has been in use for over 400 years.While under Italian control in World War II, the synagogue was damaged and Jewish records destroyed. The children and older people of the Jewish community who did not leave Split after the Italian surrender in September 1943 were rounded up and sent to concentration camps, from which they never returned.Over 50 percent of the prewar Jewish population of 300 died during World War II, either in concentration camps or fighting with the partisans. Today, some 100 Jews live in Split.Dubrovnik This well-preserved medieval city, also called Ragusa, is known as the “Pearl of the Adriatic.” For many centuries, it was a proud and independent republic. It has a favorable geographic position, being one of the first ports of call when one sailed to Europe from the east. Strategically, the city was protected by massive medieval walls surmounted by towers.The city government displayed astute political dealings with its neighbors and bought its independence from the dominant local power, whether it was Byzantium, Venice, Hungary or the Ottoman Empire. On occasion, they had to buy off more than one of these powers at the same time. Originally under Venetian control, Dubrovnik achieved its independence in 1358.Merchants, the salt trade and shipbuilding made the city very rich. Five hundred years ago, Dubrovnik, Venice and Ancona were the major maritime powers in the Adriatic. The republic entered its golden age in the 16th century, when Venice was on the wane. At that time, Dubrovnik’s navy had a fleet of 200 ships. The Dubrovnik republic had its own state flag and currency, as well as a government headed by a rector whose term of office lasted only one month. In 1776, Dubrovnik became the first state to recognize the newly independent United States.Jews fit well into Dubrovnik’s highly developed economy, serving as interpreters, merchants, importers and physicians. Although Jews were not permitted to own land or buildings, they were a l l o w e d to purchase ships.In 1546, the growth of the Jewish population led Dubrovnik officials to allow Jewish settlement within the city. The ghetto was established in 1546 – 200 years before that of Split.Although the situation of Jews was better there compared to other European cities, there were several episodes of persecution. As Dubrovnik’s economic position declined in the middle of the 18th century, the situation of the Jews became more precarious.In October 1991, during the civil war, Yugoslav forces attacked Dubrovnik.The city was under siege and bombarded for eight months, but the local population was remarkably resilient.The damage has largely been repaired, and the only reminders are the bright orange roof tiles that replaced those which were destroyed.The city walls are the major tourist attraction, and are the highlight of the visit. These walls are among the best-preserved fortification systems in Europe. Almost 2,000 meters long, the walls encompass towers and bastions.They were originally constructed in the 10th century, but were considerably fortified in the 15th century. From the ramparts of the walls, the vistas are unforgettable.The fort of St. Lawrence, situated on a high rock, was used as defense for the city and its main entrance, the Pile Gate. In medieval times, there were drawbridges at this and the other two city gates, which were pulled up at night for defense purposes.Entering the Pile Gate, one arrives at the principal promenade known as the Stradun or Placa. Topographically, this was the lowest part of the city and was initially a narrow sea channel, which was drained and converted into a street.In the 15th century, an aqueduct was constructed to ensure the city had an adequate water supply. The water led to a large ornate fountain. Another rather simple water fountain served the Jewish population, which was not permitted to drink from the major city fountains. In this Jewish fountain, water flowed from a lion’s mouth into a basin supported by a lion’s leg. After gaining equal rights from Napoleon, Jews were allowed access to all fountains.The Jewish Fountain was subsequently removed from within the old city, and placed outside the Pile Gate.Because of the Venetian influence, many of the public buildings, including the Rector’s Palace, are a beautiful mix of Gothic and Renaissance architecture.Scattered throughout the city are other palaces, bell towers, marble- paved squares and monasteries.The Dominican monastery has wonderful cloisters, with a painting of St.Blaise, patron saint of Dubrovnik, by Venetian artist Titian, as well as other manuscripts and paintings. The Dubrovnik Cathedral has existed in its present form since the 18th century, and houses a magnificent Assumption of the Virgin by the school of Titian, as well as several relics of St. Blaise. Within the Franciscan monastery is one of the oldest pharmacies in Europe. It was founded in 1317 and is still functioning.Dubrovnik also has a lazaretto, which was constructed on the waterfront.Very steep side streets rise at right angles to the Stratum. One of these is called Žudioska ulica (Jewish Street).It was here that the ghetto was established in 1546. It was walled at one end, and the entrance gate from the Stradun was locked at night.The synagogue, reputed to be Europe’s oldest functioning Sephardi synagogue, is situated on this street. Established in 1352, it is on the second floor of a 14th-century building. Though not large, the synagogue was adequate for Dubrovnik’s Jewish community, whose numbers never exceeded 300.The Baroque-style synagogue has three arches, which divide the room into front and back areas. The bima is under the central arch, and there is a prominent chandelier near the ark. Though the synagogue was damaged during the 1991 shelling of the city, it has been repaired.The first floor of the building houses the Jewish museum, which contains Torah scrolls dating from the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as archival documents related to the Jewish presence in the city. The museum also outlines the tragic history of the Croatian Jews during World War II. There is a Jewish cemetery outside the city walls.Prior to World War II, there were fewer than 100 Jews in Dubrovnik; of these, more than a quarter perished in the Holocaust or as partisans. After the war, many survivors settled in Israel.Today, approximately 20 to 30 Jews live in Dubrovnik. The total population of the city is just over 42,000, and the economy is based on tourism.For more information on Voyages to Antiquity, see www.voyagestoantiquity.com To reach guide Lea Altarac, who conducted the tour of the Jewish sites in Split: lea.altarac@gmail.comThe author, an emeritus professor of medicine, writes, reviews and lectures on medical topics, music, art, history and travel (www.irvingspitz.com). He was recently recognized with the Sidney H. Ingbar Distinguished Service Award by the Endocrine Society for his contributions to the field. His photograph album, which includes additional pictures from this and other trips, can be viewed at www.pbase.com/irvspitz irving@spitz.com
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